| 5482895 |
survey |
|
A Lindgren Funnel Trap hangs in a USDA Forest Service study site. Lindgren funnel traps are a series of black funnels suspended one on top of the other from a branch or rope between two trees. At the bottom of the funnels is a container with ethanol or ethanol/propylene glycol mix (or some other preservative).? |
| 5482894 |
survey |
|
Lindgren Funnel Traps hang between pine trees in a USDA Forest Service study site. Lindgren funnel traps are a series of black funnels suspended one on top of the other from a branch or rope between two trees. At the bottom of the funnels is a container with ethanol or ethanol/propylene glycol mix (or some other preservative).? |
| 5482900 |
root zone excavation |
|
|
| 1593014 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 5484202 |
construction |
|
A retaining wall is erected as part of the construction for a new bridge. |
| 5484203 |
construction |
|
A retaining wall is erected to help preserve a future walkway. |
| 5484201 |
construction |
|
A worker fits a drainage pipe into a retaining wall during construction. |
| 5485666 |
construction |
|
An access road near the Sutton Hole trail in Vogel State Park, Georgia, is improved. |
| 1507038 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Type & severity of rot |
| 1507040 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Patterns of heartwood rot of stumps |
| 1507041 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Diagrammatic rot column |
| 1507042 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Diagram of rot column |
| 1507043 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Patterns of decay absent heartwood |
| 1507030 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Healed vs. rotten branch stub |
| 1507036 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - 1 tree = many healthy trees |
| 1507037 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Diagrammatic tree (healthy) |
| 1507029 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Healthy vs rotting pine |
| 1505095 |
risk tree |
|
Art - Rotten tree fallen on house |
| 1505092 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - New wood formed is not affected by old rot |
| 1505089 |
pruning (general) |
|
Art - Improper pruning = serious problems |
| 1505090 |
human caused injury |
|
Art - People damage to trees |
| 1505078 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Rot column moving up from a basal wound |
| 1505079 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Outer core rot caused by a wound |
| 1505081 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Art - Wounds, cause of decay & defect |
| 1408037 |
pruning (general) |
|
Cut dead brancheds as shown here. Do not injure or remove the callus ring... |
| 1408036 |
flush cut |
|
On the other side of the same sample, you can see where the dead branch was flushcut. The red arrow marks the limit of the cut, while the actual limit extended to the green arrow due to cambial dieback. Discolored sapwood spread to the purple arrows as a result of the cut. |
| 1408035 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This section of a naturally shed cherry branch shows the perennial smal pocket of decay within the branch collar. The red arrows indicate a protective zone formed by the tree as the branch began to die 11 years ago when the tree had eight rings of sapwood. |
| 5443536 |
human caused injury |
|
names carved in outer bark on paper birch
|
| 1407041 |
human caused injury |
|
Collecting maple syrup is a yearly ritual. Several taps a year will not harm the tree, but too many will strain its recuperative powers and cause internal injury. |
| 1397039 |
topping |
|
Poor maintenance practice |
| 1397097 |
human caused injury |
|
"lantern canker", Shawnee National Forest |
| 1397041 |
pruning (general) |
|
poor pruning |
| 0976028 |
pruning (general) |
|
Whitmer Wright pruning with power saw; Heppner Ranger District |
| 1396173 |
human caused injury |
|
tapping injury |
| 1406160 |
construction |
|
tree death due to construction |
| 1374327 |
human caused injury |
|
Names carved into the smooth bark |
| 1374325 |
human caused injury |
|
Names carved into the smooth bark |
| 5040093 |
risk tree |
|
Elm with large codominant stem that failed in high winds. On Minnesota State Fairgrounds. |
| 5036002 |
risk tree |
|
Large decayed branch of American elm that failed in high winds. |
| 5053048 |
risk tree |
|
White birch with decay and defects overlooking a playground. |
| 5053050 |
risk tree |
|
American beech shedding branches; bole with extensive decay. |
| 5038081 |
risk tree |
|
Tree with multiple defeccts near parking lot. |
| 5038093 |
risk tree |
|
Hole in very large branch, indicating decay. |
| 5252048 |
risk tree |
|
Hole in tree, indicating decay. |
| 5054009 |
risk tree |
|
A hazard tree removed in a campground. |
| 5054010 |
risk tree |
|
A large tree near a picnic area. The degree of risk posed by this tree can only be determined by a careful inspection. |
| 5054012 |
risk tree |
|
Trees that fell in a campground. |
| 5054016 |
risk tree |
|
A large tree that failed in a campground. |
| 5054018 |
risk tree |
|
Trees removed for hazard abatement in a campground |
| 5054014 |
risk tree |
|
Trees removed for hazard abatement in a campground |
| 5054023 |
risk tree |
|
A large tree with extensive decay that failed in a campground |
| 5054026 |
risk tree |
|
Cracks, seams on campground tree |
| 5054027 |
risk tree |
|
Very large codominant stem failure |
| 5039012 |
risk tree |
|
Large, potentially hazardous trees near a playground |
| 5045017 |
risk tree |
|
A leaning cottonwood along a trail. |
| 5045019 |
risk tree |
|
A tree with a corrected lean |
| 5039090 |
risk tree |
|
Old broken branch with decay |
| 5055038 |
risk tree |
|
Long crack and decay |
| 5039022 |
risk tree |
|
Low V-shaped crotch |
| 5039038 |
risk tree |
|
Failure of multiple branches arising from a single point, during a severe windstorm. |
| 5254006 |
risk tree |
|
Broken branches piled after a storm |
| 5053041 |
risk tree |
|
Downed trees in a forest environment. Useful in visualizing how trees might fail in campground situations. |
| 5038080 |
risk tree |
|
Tree with large defect caused by failed codominant branch. |
| 5045010 |
risk tree |
|
Large broken branches in silver maple |
| 5045009 |
risk tree |
|
Codominant branch failure in bur oak |
| 5039025 |
risk tree |
|
Large codominant branch failure |
| 5253073 |
risk tree |
|
Windthrown ash hanger. |
| 5039037 |
risk tree |
|
Failure of multiple branches during a severe windstorm |
| 5039039 |
risk tree |
|
Multiple branch failure, during a severe windstorm, where several branches arose from the same point. |
| 5045089 |
pruning (general) |
|
Good pruning cut |
| 5057001 |
pruning (general) |
|
Pruning wounds treated with several colors of paint. |
| 5252010 |
topping |
|
Cracks and epicormic branches formed after a tree was topped. |
| 5050084 |
visual tree inspection |
|
Inspecting a potential hazard tree at Grey Towers, near handicap parking space. |
| 5044025 |
cabling |
|
Cabling an oak tree. |
| 5038069 |
epicormic branch |
|
Epicormic branches |
| 5044036 |
branch union |
|
Strong branch unions in Tilia cordata |
| 5044037 |
risk tree |
|
Exposed roots and a broken bole in a hazardous lakeside tree. |
| 5044058 |
branch union |
|
Tree with strong branch angles. |
| 5044059 |
branch union |
|
Strong branch angle in bur oak |
| 5044060 |
branch union |
|
Good branch angles and pruning cuts. |
| 5044061 |
branch union |
|
Good branch angle |
| 5052081 |
topping |
|
A topped tree with numerous epicormic branches produced on decaying stubs. |
| 5052097 |
risk tree |
|
A situation where the target could be moved. |
| 5053001 |
grade change |
|
White pine in parking lot where fill was added to raise grade. |
| 5053007 |
urban planting |
|
Trees planted in concrete, with little drainage. |
| 5053019 |
construction |
|
Tree injured during regrading. |
| 5053037 |
risk tree |
|
Multiple defects (cracks, decay, poor branch angles) in a yard tree. |
| 5053036 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Storm-damaged tree with broken branch. |
| 5053039 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Storm damage and partial mitigation |
| 5053046 |
utility line clearance pruning |
|
Trees topped severely under a utility line |
| 5053054 |
risk tree |
|
Large tree with multiple defects, including cracks, decay, dead branches. |
| 5044080 |
risk tree |
|
Sealed-over crack with decay. |
| 5044081 |
risk tree |
|
Hazard tree crack with sawdust at base of tree, indicating decay. |
| 5044083 |
exposed roots |
|
Erosion and exposed roots. |
| 5298071 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Storm-damaged trees with dead wood and broken branches. |
| 5251097 |
tree props |
|
Propped trees in China. |
| 5251098 |
tree props |
|
Propped trees in China |
| 5048036 |
branch union |
|
Strong, U-shaped branch union |
| 5048040 |
branch union |
|
Strong, U-shaped branch union in sugar maple. |
| 5048045 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Branch breakage caused by high winds, in a tree with upright branching and included bark. |
| 5042084 |
pruning (general) |
|
Improper pruning technique, leading to bark ripping. |
| 5038010 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Tree failure across road with inmate cleanup crew. |
| 5038011 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Very poor technique in tree failure cleanup. |
| 5043083 |
pruning (general) |
|
Pruning white pine with a bucket truck to abate hazard. |
| 5043044 |
branch union |
|
Strong branch attachment in bur oak. |
| 5043047 |
topping |
|
Example of poor pruning under powerlines. |
| 5038008 |
utilities |
|
Cable layer with a three-foot blade. |
| 5043051 |
static tree support |
|
Placing stabilizing cables in a red oak. |
| 5298012 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
|
| 5298013 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
|
| 5298014 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
|
| 5034044 |
risk tree |
|
Western Hazard Tree Workshop participants, 2004 |
| 5034045 |
risk tree |
|
Dissected tree at Western Hazard Tree Workshop, 2004; Dissected tree for hazard tree training |
| 5048031 |
branch union |
|
A branch union with a strong, U-shaped architecture and no included bark. |
| 5052079 |
branch union |
|
This image illustrates good, U-shaped branch angles of attachment. |
| 1397114 |
pruning (general) |
|
young tree in need of pruning |
| 1397122 |
pruning (general) |
|
Excessive branch crossing. Tree needs a thinning cut. |
| 1397124 |
storm damage (general) |
|
uncorrected storm damage |
| 1407024 |
root zone |
|
A tree's life extends beneath the ground. Here, larger roots provide a support system, |
| 1407025 |
root zone |
|
while finer filaments absorb moisture and minerals. |
| 1407022 |
branch union |
|
and when branches die,; showing natural branch shedding at the branch union. |
| 1407023 |
branch union |
|
they, too, fall away.; showing action of natural pruning at the branch union. |
| 1407037 |
human caused injury |
|
they might see that damage to trees in a dead end. |
| 5032005 |
bracing |
|
Ineffective use of chain to mitigate a bad branch union. |
| 5032068 |
pruning (general) |
|
Poor pruning technique on a small tree. |
| 5038024 |
dynamic tree support |
|
Cobra cable system |
| 5037069 |
dynamic tree support |
|
"Cobra" system cabling on a large American elm. |
| 5033039 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Tree damaged by high winds |
| 5033093 |
epicormic branch |
|
Epicormic branches arising after pruning in green ash. |
| 5033094 |
epicormic branch |
|
Epicormic branches arising after pruning on green ash. |
| 5033095 |
epicormic branch |
|
Epicormic branches arising after pruning on green ash. |
| 5053035 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Multiple branch failures in tree during wind storm. |
| 5043088 |
urban planting |
|
Note the rope still surrounding the base of the tree. This should have been removed when the tree was planted. |
| 5043091 |
pruning (general) |
|
Properly pruned tree, with a closed pruning wound. Also shows a strong, u-shaped branch crotch. |
| 5053027 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Powerlines downed in storm. Note the scorched grass |
| 5028007 |
risk tree |
|
Hazardous conditions caused by poor tree maintenance. |
| 5028078 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Cleanup after a severe storm in Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN |
| 5028079 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Cleanup of storm-damaged trees in Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN |
| 5028080 |
storm damage (general) |
|
Bucket truck used in cleanup of storm-damaged trees. |
| 5044007 |
risk tree |
|
|
| 5046036 |
topping |
|
Severely topped tree |
| 5048022 |
branch union |
|
This is a relatively strong branch union, with bark pushed upward between the two codominant branches. |
| 5048037 |
branch bark ridge |
|
Upright branch attachment showing the branch bark ridge. |
| 1473169 |
human caused injury |
|
Campground in aspen stand sustaining damage from campers carving, axing, and otherwise injuring the bark; photo taken 8/1973. |
| 1473178 |
human caused injury |
|
bark injury in campground; photo taken 7/1974 |
| 1473188 |
human caused injury |
|
|
| 5050020 |
construction |
|
|
| 5050021 |
construction |
|
|
| 5044008 |
risk tree |
|
|
| 5044009 |
risk tree |
|
|
| 5044006 |
risk tree |
|
|
| 5043008 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
cross section showing compartmentalization at the branch collar |
| 5057090 |
tree grate |
|
rope from root ball left on trunk |
| 5050018 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5034065 |
exposed roots |
|
|
| 5034066 |
exposed roots |
|
|
| 5050011 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5050012 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5050013 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5050014 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5050015 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5050016 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5050019 |
grade change |
|
|
| 5042077 |
cabling |
|
|
| 5052089 |
topping |
|
|
| 5052096 |
topping |
|
|
| 5043006 |
tree anatomy |
|
branch collar |
| 5043007 |
tree anatomy |
|
Branch collar and branch bark ridge |
| 5044005 |
risk tree |
|
|
| 5058027 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 5043092 |
pruning (general) |
|
proper pruning cuts may completely close over time |
| 5034092 |
exposed roots |
|
mower damage on surface root |
| 5039033 |
exposed roots |
|
mower damage on root |
| 5028077 |
storm damage (general) |
|
After-storm cleanup after a severe storm in Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN. |
| 5056005 |
exposed roots |
|
mower damage to roots |
| 1397107 |
exposed roots |
|
exposed roots damaged by mowers |
| 5042082 |
stubs |
|
Badly pruned white pine |
| 1408052 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
On these red maple samples, cambial dieback is consistent on all wounds, whether treated or control. |
| 5028046 |
risk tree |
|
Hazard tree of a peculiar kind. A child was killed when he leaned his head out an open window. Tree was too close to the street surface at a bus stop |
| 5031018 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 5031019 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 5031020 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 5047050 |
risk tree |
|
Alex Shigo at a hazard tree workshop in about 1990. |
| 1505074 |
bracing |
|
Elm bracing to protect heavy branches |
| 1505075 |
bracing |
|
Elm bracing to protect heavy branches |
| 1505076 |
bracing |
|
Elm - distance shot of braced tree |
| 1270007 |
root cutting and trenching |
|
|
| 5029068 |
stubs |
|
Don't leave stubs long enough to hang your hat on. |
| 5030027 |
risk tree |
|
Hazard tree in a park near Tawas City, MI |
| 5028057 |
human caused injury |
|
Canker caused by lantern in campground; Note the nail just above the sloughing bark that shows where the lantern was hung. The heat from the lantern killed the bark of this tree. |
| 5028087 |
construction |
|
Construction activities can cause severe injury to the root systems of trees. |
| 1408005 |
grade change |
|
excessive soil fill; note the lack of a root flare |
| 5028084 |
grade change |
|
Trees can be severely injured by grade change activities |
| 5028088 |
grade change |
|
The grade was raised around these white pine trees (Pinus strobus). The trees suffered some dieback, but did not die. |
| 5028089 |
grade change |
|
Grade was raised next to this white pine to elevate the road. The tree survived the change in grade. |
| 1400020 |
risk tree |
|
White pine with defect over picnic area. |
| 1409066 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Holes are commonly made in trees for injections, and for tapping maple sap. The sections here are from the same maple tree. Paraformaldehyde was added to the hole in the left section, but not to the control section on the right. This shows how chemicals may reduce a tree's ability to compartmentalize, so that decay develops rapidly. |
| 1408061 |
tree injections |
|
When injecting or implanting substances keep the wound as small and shallow as possible. Treatments can be beneficial when properly applied. |
| 1408064 |
tree injections |
|
Never make deep wounds or apply high pressure, |
| 1408047 |
root sprouts |
|
Prune basal sprouts as soon as you idnetify the desired dominant stems. Choose those that grow lowest on the old stump. Don't worry that decay may spread from a cut sprout or into a growing dominant sprout; it won't happen. |
| 1408062 |
tree implants |
|
Wounds close rapidly on fast-growing trees. Try not to make new wounds every year, or inflict them directly above or below older wounds. |
| 1408063 |
tree implants |
|
Don't use high doses of chemicals. Small openings can cause large problems when phytotxic chemicals are used. |
| 1408065 |
tree implants |
|
large wounds from implants or injections may cause severe internal injuries and cambial dieback |
| 1408066 |
tree implants |
|
large holes created in injections or implants may create cankered areas and may keep the wounds from closing. |
| 1408067 |
tree implants |
|
Follow the same careful procedure with implants. |
| 1408068 |
tree implants |
|
When implants are first inserted, they cause very little damage to healthy trees. The story changes, however, as the injury is repeated year after year. |
| 1409042 |
flush cut |
|
Ring shakes along wall 4 are common in flush-pruned trees such as this black walnut. |
| 1409048 |
flush cut |
|
Decay developed above and below the 13-year-old flush cut on this black walnut. |
| 1408048 |
flush cut |
|
Applying dressings to improper cuts, such as the one on this mountain ash, is primarily cosmetic. Research shows that commonly used wound dressings do not stop decay. |
| 1408049 |
flush cut |
|
Fruit bodies of fungi often burst through wound dressings. This is a sure sign of decay, which can be stimulated by too much dressing. |
| 1408050 |
flush cut |
|
This same tree had been cut in many places. Harsh flush-cuts and heavy coats of dressing will indeed cause the tree, as well as the people and property around it, some real problems. |
| 1409046 |
flush cut |
|
Flush cuts wound the trunk, which responds by forming wall 4. These walls often split. Microorganisms easily enter a trunk wound. Samples from an oak tree show that callus formed after it was wounded, an indication that decay did not develop. |
| 1409047 |
flush cut |
|
Flush cuts cause discoloration of sapwood, which normally transports and stores material. |
| 1409027 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Wall 4 also forms after wood is infected. This elm had Dutch elm disease; the red arrows show where recent infections were walled off. |
| 1409023 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This is illustrated on the crosscut face of a peach tree. The column of discolored and decayed wood is the coalescence of columns from many individual, occurances. |
| 1408070 |
cabling |
|
Cables and braces can be beneficial if properly used. Do not anchor hardware in decayed wood, which fell away after the sample was cut. Only new wood that formed around the hardware remained sound. |
| 1408073 |
cabling |
|
Avoid cables angles that will cause screws to move, thus inhibiting firm closure. |
| 1408071 |
bracing |
|
The same thing happened here. Sound new wood formed around the rod. Try to keep the tree healthy after bracing. |
| 1408072 |
bracing |
|
Don't use sharp-edged washers; they cut into the tree and obstruct closure. |
| 1408041 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
These sections came from a maple tree that was wounded experimentally. A wide variety of decay resulted, but all wounds showed the same type of thick callus ring. Again, callus is associated with the growth rate of the tree, not with the decay process. |
| 1408051 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
We conducted research on wound dressings on hundreds of trees. After dissecting them, we found no difference between treated and control trees. These samples from the same white oak show no difference in callus formation. |
| 1409025 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
In this birch tree, vertical arrows show wall no. 1, while horizontal arrows point to wall no. 4. |
| 1409021 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Decay was less advanced in this western hemlock. |
| 1409026 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This slice of western hemlock was taken from the top of a wounded area. The red arrows shoe wall 4 within the growth rings. Points A and B show where wall 4 ends. |
| 1409056 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Again, the drill holes on this aspen penetrated to the red markes, yet discolored wood stopped at the arrows. |
| 1409067 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Holes have helped researchers select individuals within a species that compartmentalize rapidly and effectively. All trees in Populus species, clone 42, were strong compartmentalizers, while all trees in clone 49 were not. It appears that the capacity to compartmentalize is under strong genetic control. |
| 1409074 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The bottoms of roots usually decay first and then connect with the wood between them at the tree butt. Decay will then be most advanced between the roots, as in this balsam fir. Trees with decay at this junction often split above the roots. |
| 1409018 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
CODIT is a model that applies to both non-heartwood and heartwood-forming trees |
| 1409034 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
In this oak, the red arrows show the limits of an old wound. An open crack formed where callus first closed the injury. The green arrows point to radial shakes that split outward, while the blue arrows show ring shakes associated with other wounds. The purple arrows point to internal radial shakes. |
| 1409038 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
A decayed basal sprout on this oak was a weak spot from which a crack spread inward at the purple arrows and outward at the red arrows. "S" indicates sapwood, "H" is heartwood, and the dotted line shows the boundary between them. |
| 1409012 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Hollows are found in trees that have heartwood |
| 1409030 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Though strong in one sense, the barrier zone is structurally weak and may pull apart, as it did in this white pine. |
| 1409031 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Barrier zones sometimes form when branches die. When the tissues separate, as they did in this cherry, a ring shake results. |
| 1409029 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Wall 4 is a model representation of a barrier zone, which is composed of strong protective tissue. This is the barrier zone from a spruce sample. |
| 1409071 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
In this spruce sample, the pencil indicates the limites of the dead bark. Fungi did not spread into new wood that formed after the infected wood was contained. |
| 1409035 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This black walnut was wounded at the green arrows when it was 1 inch in diameter. At the red arrows the calus infoll cut into the trunk and caused an internal crack. |
| 1409024 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Wall 4 extended entirely around the trunk of this sweetgum tree, a common, but not inevitable, occurrance. |
| 1409020 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This white oak had five basal wounds. The triangular-shaped discolored and decayed wood was formed by walls 2 and 3 which resisted spread, and wall 4 which separated infected wood from healthy wood. |
| 1409011 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Hollows are found in trees that have heartwood |
| 1409037 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
When decay and cracks combine, as they did in this black locust, wall 2 is the tree's only defense against the spread of decay. |
| 1409028 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
In response to a wound, this Norway spruce developed a wall 4, indicated by the red arrows, within the growth ring. The green arrows show how far the cells that produced resin extended. |
| 1409013 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Hollows are found in trees that have heartwood |
| 1409019 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
CODIT is a model that applies to both non-heartwood and heartwood-forming trees |
| 1409060 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This eucalypt had multiple columns: first a central hollow, then a band of sound heartwood, then another hollow, and finally more sound heartwood. |
| 1408053 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
We found many decay-causing fungi in tissue taken from treated and control wounds. If a client insists on using wound dressing, apply a very thin coat but only after you've compelted all the other procedures for maintaining a healthy tree. |
| 1408054 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Holes are wounds, too. |
| 1408055 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Drill holes have been the subject of experiments on decay for more than 20 years. Abundant information is available on this type of wound. |
| 1408056 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
When healthy wood is wounded, the tree walls off the injured areas. |
| 1408057 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
When new wounds are added to wood that is already discolored and decayed from older injuries, much larger columns of infected wood will result. |
| 1408058 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
These two maples received similar wounds at the same time. The one on the left shows little injury, but the one on the right sustained considerable damage. |
| 1408059 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Trees can wall off wounds effectively, but as damage accumulates over time, internal columns of infected wood begin to merge. This happens even with small wounds, |
| 1408060 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
wounds inflicted in the tough root flair area. |
| 1408069 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Notice how dieback spread only slightly above and below this experimental wound. When scribing or tracing wounds, be sure to cut smooth, shallow, and rounded margins. You don't need to stay with one particular shape, like an elongated ellipse. |
| 1409002 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The sawyer on the left is Dr. George Hepting, a pioneer researcher on tree decay. He observed compartmentalization of decay in trees in 1935. Dissecting trees with a crosscut saw was extremely difficult. Until 1959 our view of tree decay was obtained mainly from crosscut sections. |
| 1409005 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Patterns of discolored and decayed wood could be studied on both longitudinal and crosscut surfaces. |
| 1409006 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Since 1959 thousands of trees have been dissected and studied this way. |
| 1409007 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
From these studies, basic patterns of discolored and decayed wood have emerged. A major finding is that the diameter of the discolored and decayed wood is the diameter of the tree when it was wounded... |
| 1409008 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
From these studies, basic patterns of discolored and decayed wood have emerged. A major finding is that the diameter of the discolored and decayed wood is the diameter of the tree when it was wounded or when the branches died. This is true both for hardwoods... |
| 1409009 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
and for conifers. When decay develops in wood exposed by branches, it does nto move outward, even when that wood is heartwood. The arrows show the limit of decay. |
| 1409010 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Hollows result when microorganisms digest the wood that was present at the time of wounding. |
| 1409014 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The same patterns of compartmentalization occur in roots. |
| 1409015 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Hollows do not always develop in the center, as evidenced in this tropical hardwood. |
| 1409016 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Trees compartmentalize injured and infected wood. To aid in understanding compartmentalization, we develop a model called CODIT, and acronym for Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees. |
| 1409017 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The CODIT model has two parts. Part I has three walls: no. 1 resists vertical spread, no. 2 resists inward spread, and no. 3 resists lateral spread. Part II has one wall, no. 4 which separates wood present at the time of injury and infection from new wood. |
| 1409022 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The green arrows point to wall no. 1 in this red maple. In an abstract sense, each growth ring is a new tree and each tree used the same mechanisms to resist the spread of decay. |
| 1409032 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Trees form barrier zones around hardware. |
| 1409033 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
After a tree is wounded, a wall 4 forms, as it did in this oak. Radial shakes often develop at the edges of the wound, where the pen and pencil are pointing. When pressure occurs due to heat, cold or felling, shakes may split outward. These splits are called frost cracks. |
| 1409036 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Multiple cracks form when many radial shakes associated with old wound split outward, as in this post oak. The cracks start at the circular barrier zone. |
| 1409039 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This is a typical cracking pattern. The purple arrows point to where callus closed the wound. |
| 1409040 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
In response to insect wounds, this maple formed wall 4. Radial cracks developed later at the blue arrows. |
| 1409041 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Wall 4 in this eucalypt separated to form a ring shake. Felling caused a radial crack at the 6 o'clock position. |
| 1409045 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Decay is essential for branch shedding. If decay surmounts the tree's natural chemical boundary, it will be walled off within the stub. |
| 1409049 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The leader on this beech was killed, and a branch became a new leader. Decay developed to the width fo the old leader and spread only downward. |
| 1409050 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
When a branch containing heartwood dies or is cut, the sapwood discolors and decays first, not the heartwood. |
| 1409051 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
If decay developes in drill holes, it starts in wood nearest to the bark, like it did in the center sample. This is true both for sapwood trees, such as the maple shown here, and for heartwood-forming trees. |
| 1409052 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Wound B in this maple was well compartmentalized. Wound A weakened at wall 2, because its inner edge was too close to the central column of discolored wood. |
| 1409053 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The same drill patterns appear in this oak, showing that heartwood compartmentalizes injured and infected wood. |
| 1409054 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Decay spread to the center of the beech at left. Before it was wounded, this tree was healthy from bark to pith, while the beech on the right already had a central column of altered wood. The drill wounds reached the center of both trees, but discolored and decayed wood associated with wounds did not penetrate the central column of the altered tree. |
| 1409055 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
An identical pattern is seen here, where the wound reached the pith, but discolored wood did not. |
| 1409057 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Here you see where a drill hole passed through sapwood, healthy heartwood, and wound-altered heartwood five years before this oak was cut. Note carefully that decay associated with the wound did not spread outward beyond wall 4, or inward through wound-altered heartwood. Heartwood and sapwood will compartmentalize injured and infected tissue, but once they've responded they cannot respond again. |
| 1409058 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
An example of this phenomenon is seen here, where decayed wood associated with the dead branch B did not spread into A or outward into C. |
| 1409059 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
The heartwood is separate from the column of decayed wood on this sample, proving that microorganisms do not grow at will in trees. |
| 1409063 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Here, healthy heartwood surrounds decayed heartwood, which, in turn surrounds a central column of healthy heartwood. |
| 1409065 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
When a compartmentalized column 1 is ruptured by another wound, column 2 develops. |
| 1409069 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
the fungus was walled off in the wood after being stopped in the bark. |
| 1409043 |
tree anatomy |
|
For proper pruning, start with identifying the branch bark ridge. Instead of cutting behind it or leaving a stub, cut along the red line. |
| 1409044 |
tree anatomy |
|
Within the collar that forms at the base of dying branches is a chemical protective boundary indicated by the red arrows. Removing the collar destroys the boundary. The blue arrows mark an internal view of the branch bark ridge. |
| 1407039 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Most people think that dressings will help heal a wound, but research shows that wound dressings do not stop decay. |
| 1408078 |
risk tree |
|
You can also use electrical methods to detect decay and determine the relative vitality of trees. |
| 1408024 |
pruning (general) |
|
This is the right way to cut a large living branches. |
| 1408025 |
pruning (general) |
|
Every branch has a thick bark ridge separating it from the main stem. Never cut behind the branch bark ridge. Never leave a stub, as shown here. Always cut as close as possible to the outer edge fo the branch bark ridge, as indicated by the red line. |
| 1408026 |
pruning (general) |
|
The inner side of the sample shows the hard inner wood of the branch bark ridge. If you cut behind the ridge at the arrow you'll injure the main stem. Cut the branch, not the trunk, by following the red line. |
| 1408029 |
pruning (general) |
|
Here is a proper cut on a small oak branch |
| 1408030 |
pruning (general) |
|
Callus will ring proper cut on a small oak branch |
| 1408031 |
pruning (general) |
|
callus growth shown six months after pruning. |
| 1361173 |
construction |
|
Structure used to prevent damage to tree during construction |
| 3046065 |
human caused injury |
|
weed wacker damage to base of small tree |
| 1397027 |
human caused injury |
|
"lantern canker" |
| 1408021 |
human caused injury |
|
This oak was severely wounded when it was small. A crack later formed over the callus closure. Lawn mowers cause many injuries that later become cracks. Injured roots or roots killed during planting may also lead to cracks five or even 10 years later. |
| 1408027 |
tree anatomy |
|
You can easily locate the branch bark ridge on most trees |
| 1408028 |
tree anatomy |
|
branch bark ridge on a small branch |
| 1408022 |
flush cut |
|
Cracks also start above flush-cut branches. One has started here at the pencil point on this maple which was flush-cut two years ago. |
| 1408023 |
flush cut |
|
Never flush-cut living, dying, or dead branches. |
| 1408038 |
flush cut |
|
you will later see an obvious early warning sign of decay -- a dead spot at the base of the cut. |
| 1408039 |
flush cut |
|
Decay spreads rapidly from dead spots. No amount or type of wound dressing will help. |
| 1408040 |
flush cut |
|
The size of the callus is not related to the decay process but depends on how rapidly the tree grows after pruning. All too often, big callus rings belie the presence of decayed wood or hollows inside. |
| 1408043 |
crown reduction (pruning) |
|
When removing a leader, slant the cut gently as shown on the left' a flat cut invited rapid decay development. |
| 1408044 |
crown reduction (pruning) |
|
On the other hand, a severely slanted cut also encourages the spread of decay upward and downward. |
| 1407047 |
stubs |
|
Incorrect pruning is one of the most damaging practices inflicted on forest trees, shade trees, |
| 1407048 |
stubs |
|
|
| 1408004 |
tree pit |
|
pressure from concrete causes root deformation as tree grows to fill a tree pit at a street corner |
| 1408003 |
tree grate |
|
poor soils, severe wounding, |
| 1407042 |
bracing |
|
The same advice goes for inserting hardware to strengthen branches and trunks, |
| 1407029 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
These microscopic units in woody tissue can be likened to rooms or compartments, which a tree can close off it they become injured or infected; illustrating walls 2, 3, and 4 |
| 1407030 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
New wood that forms around the wound is usually not infected. A callus covers the injured surface. |
| 1407026 |
tree anatomy |
|
Intersection of tracheids with ray cells in the secondary xylem; Though they shed many outer parts, trees retain their wood, both healthy and decayed, in a highly ordered fashion. Viewed thorugh a microscope, this stained section of woody tissue reveals the order... |
| 1407027 |
tree anatomy |
|
cross-section through xylem |
| 1407028 |
tree anatomy |
|
This is a magnified section of American elm. |
| 1407040 |
tree anatomy |
|
The gum secreted by this peach tree is a natural dressing. All trees have similar self-healing mechanisms. |
| 1407043 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
and for filling cavities. A professional will not bore holes to drain water from a cavity, or clean the decayed area so throughly that healthy wood is injured. |
| 1407044 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Trees produce a wall around injured and infected wood. You should never disturb this natural barrier. Injuries form an indelible record of a tree's life: a hollow will be equal in diameter to the diameter of the tree when it was injured. |
| 1408008 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Cavities in trees start with wounds and dead branches or leaders. A cavity's diameter will be the same as that of the tree when it was wounded or when the branch or leader died. The leader on this birch tree died when the tree was the diameter of the cavity. |
| 1408011 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
This old cavity was cleaned so throughly that he hard rim of wood between decayed and sound tissue was broken. |
| 1408012 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Either leave cavities open or fill them safely with nonabrasive materials. To prepare a cavity for filling or screening, take only the wood that is easy to remove; preserve the hard, protective rim. |
| 1408014 |
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees (CODIT) |
|
Wounds spell trouble for trees. Do everyhting you can to prevent them. Trees are able, however, to wall off wounds. |
| 1408006 |
topping |
|
and severed branches. The list goes on and on. |
| 1407049 |
pruning (general) |
|
Never prune where this saw is poised, behind the bark ridge. Cut in front of the ridge, as indicated by the red line. Never prune when the leaves are forming. As mentioned earlier, don't paint wounds except for cosmetic reasons; then use a thin coat of a commercial dessing, never a house paint |
| 1407056 |
construction |
|
Some major types of injury, including the damage caused by construction, can be avoided. Insist that your contractor follow careful construction practices. Using heavy soil fill, damaging the roots, |
| 1397111 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cut; good callus growth |
| 1397112 |
pruning (general) |
|
Painted pruning wounds on white spruce. Painting pruning wounds is not a recommended procedure, except under very special circumstances, to prevent spread of disease. |
| 1397115 |
pruning (general) |
|
Proper pruning cut on small branch. |
| 1397119 |
pruning (general) |
|
Proper placement of saw for pruning cut |
| 1397120 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cut |
| 1397125 |
pruning (general) |
|
proper orientation of pruners, with cutting blade closest to remaining part of branch or stem |
| 1397136 |
pruning (general) |
|
proper cut |
| 1397109 |
pruning (general) |
|
Good pruning cut on bur oak |
| 1397072 |
risk tree |
|
Removal of hazard trees in campground. |
| 1397116 |
risk tree |
|
Hazard tree transformed into light post. |
| 1397067 |
topping |
|
topped tree. Very poor pruning practice. |
| 1397118 |
topping |
|
Improper pruning cuts-topping, lopping or heading |
| 1397123 |
topping |
|
poor pruning practice: topped tree |
| 1397139 |
topping |
|
topped tree for utility clearance |
| 1397102 |
tree anatomy |
|
tree with fair u-shaped crotch |
| 1397134 |
tree anatomy |
|
dead branch delimiting the edge of the branch collar |
| 1397103 |
tree anatomy |
|
Red maple with stable, u-shaped crotch |
| 1397100 |
tree anatomy |
|
Bur oak with strong, u-shaped crotch |
| 1397117 |
flush cut |
|
flush cut |
| 1397137 |
flush cut |
|
poor pruning practice: partial flush cut |
| 1397138 |
flush cut |
|
poor pruning practice: partial flush cut |
| 5037089 |
flush cut |
|
bad pruning cut; semi-flush |
| 1397121 |
stubs |
|
Poor pruning cuts (stubs) |
| 1397110 |
ripped pruning cuts |
|
ripped bark from bad cut |
| 1397135 |
ripped pruning cuts |
|
|
| 1397126 |
flush cut |
|
poor pruning practice: flush cut |
| 3035060 |
human caused injury |
|
human damage to maple,TN |
| 5060095 |
human caused injury |
|
tree cankers with electrical box |
| 5060096 |
human caused injury |
|
tree with lantern hanger nail |
| 5061024 |
human caused injury |
|
severe weed wacker damage |
| 5061025 |
human caused injury |
|
weed whacker damage |
| 5055084 |
human caused injury |
|
mechanical damage |
| 5055085 |
human caused injury |
|
mechanical damage |
| 5055076 |
human caused injury |
|
Maple tapping injury and decay |
| 5046006 |
pruning (general) |
|
correct use of pruning shears |
| 5046007 |
pruning (general) |
|
pruning tools |
| 5046009 |
pruning (general) |
|
fresh pruning wounds |
| 5057014 |
pruning (general) |
|
branch pruning |
| 5057015 |
pruning (general) |
|
branch pruning |
| 5057016 |
pruning (general) |
|
branch pruning |
| 5056006 |
human caused injury |
|
mower weed whip damage |
| 5056007 |
human caused injury |
|
mower weed whip damage |
| 5055006 |
human caused injury |
|
"lantern" canker on birch with nail |
| 5045007 |
human caused injury |
|
"lantern" canker |
| 5055007 |
human caused injury |
|
"lantern" canker on tree (nail above canker) |
| 5044043 |
pruning (general) |
|
Felco folding saw |
| 5044062 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cut and callus |
| 5044063 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cut; fresh |
| 5044064 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cut; small |
| 5044065 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cuts |
| 5044066 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning cuts |
| 5044067 |
pruning (general) |
|
good pruning wound |
| 5044044 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 5044045 |
pruning (general) |
|
Felco pruning saw |
| 5049006 |
human caused injury |
|
carving vandalism |
| 5042078 |
flush cut |
|
bad pruning cut |
| 5042079 |
flush cut |
|
bad pruning cuts |
| 5048053 |
flush cut |
|
bad pruning cut |
| 5042083 |
ripped pruning cuts |
|
bark rip pruning cut |
| 5043011 |
stubs |
|
branch stubs |
| 2141036 |
pruning (general) |
|
Pruned spruce |
| 2141037 |
pruning (general) |
|
Pruned spruce |
| 1399119 |
stubs |
|
Poor pruning, hatchet leaves ragged wound. |
| 1468007 |
construction |
|
massive reduction in root area by severing of roots during construction |
| 1468010 |
construction |
|
grading and paving weakened tree |
| 1397034 |
human caused injury |
|
This tree has a chestnut blight canker that formed after the name was carved in the trunk. |
| 1397070 |
human caused injury |
|
Bark peeled from white birch (Betula papyrifera) in a camground. |
| 1397035 |
human caused injury |
|
names carved into tree |
| 1397038 |
pruning (general) |
|
Poor pruning |
| 1400168 |
urban planting |
|
Residual burlap from original planting ball that was never removed. Stem compression. |
| 1399066 |
pruning (general) |
|
|
| 1420027 |
pruning (general) |
|
George Ward pruning longleaf bole, USDA Forest Service - Escambia Experimental Forest, Brewton, Alabama, 1961 |
| 1748100 |
tree spade |
|
|
